Parent Resources

Understanding the Special Education Process in the United States

The sections below provide an overview of the laws, procedures, and key concepts that parents of children with disabilities and learning differences are likely to encounter when navigating the special education system in the United States. This information is intended as a general guide and does not constitute legal advice. Parents with questions about their child's specific situation are encouraged to contact Dr Schneider or consult with a special education attorney.

What Is IDEA?

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a federal law that guarantees children with disabilities the right to a free appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment (LRE). Under IDEA, public school districts are responsible for identifying, evaluating, and providing specially designed instruction and related services to eligible children from birth through age 21.

IDEA recognizes thirteen categories of disability, including specific learning disability, autism, intellectual disability, speech or language impairment, other health impairment (which often includes ADHD), and emotional disturbance, among others. To be eligible for services under IDEA, a child must have a disability that falls within one of these categories, and that disability must adversely affect the child's educational performance to the extent that the child requires specially designed instruction.

IDEA also provides parents with specific procedural rights, known as procedural safeguards. These include the right to participate in all meetings about a child's identification, evaluation, and placement; the right to examine all educational records; the right to obtain an independent educational evaluation; and the right to resolve disagreements through mediation, due process hearings, or formal complaints.

What Is an IEP?

An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a written document developed by a team that includes the child's parents, teachers, and other qualified professionals. The IEP describes the child's present levels of academic and functional performance, establishes measurable annual goals, and specifies the special education services, related services, accommodations, and modifications the child will receive.

IEP teams must meet at least once per year to review and update the IEP, and a full reevaluation of the child must take place at least once every three years (unless the parent and school agree that a reevaluation is unnecessary). Parents are equal members of the IEP team and have the right to participate meaningfully in all decisions about their child's education.

An IEP is not a suggestion. It is a legally binding document. The school district is obligated to provide the services and supports described in the IEP, and parents have the right to hold the district accountable if it fails to do so.

What Is a 504 Plan? How Is It Different from an IEP?

A 504 plan is a document developed under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, a federal civil rights law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities. A 504 plan provides accommodations that allow a child with a disability to access the general education curriculum on an equal basis with peers.

The key difference between a 504 plan and an IEP is scope. An IEP, developed under IDEA, provides specially designed instruction: it changes what or how a child is taught. A 504 plan provides accommodations: it changes the conditions under which a child learns (such as extended time on tests, preferential seating, or the use of assistive technology) without altering the curriculum itself.

A child may qualify for a 504 plan without qualifying for an IEP. Under Section 504, the definition of disability is broader: the child must have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, including learning. There is no requirement that the disability fall within one of IDEA's thirteen categories.

Parents should be aware that 504 plans carry fewer procedural protections than IEPs. While schools are required to implement a 504 plan, the legal framework for resolving disputes is more limited. Parents who believe their child may need specially designed instruction, rather than accommodations alone, should discuss whether an evaluation under IDEA may be appropriate.

What Is a Psychoeducational Evaluation?

A psychoeducational evaluation is a comprehensive assessment designed to understand a child's cognitive abilities, academic skills, and, when relevant, social-emotional functioning. The purpose of the evaluation is to determine whether a child has a disability, to understand the nature of the child's strengths and difficulties, and to inform decisions about instruction, intervention, and services.

A comprehensive psychoeducational evaluation typically includes:

• Cognitive (intellectual) assessment: Standardized tests of reasoning, processing speed, memory, and other cognitive abilities (such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children or the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities)

• Academic achievement assessment: Standardized tests of reading, writing, and mathematics (such as the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test or the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement)

• Additional assessments as warranted: Depending on the child's suspected areas of difficulty, the evaluation may also include measures of attention and executive functioning, language, visual-motor skills, social-emotional functioning, adaptive behavior, or other relevant areas

• Review of records, work samples, and input from parents, providers and teachers

The results of a psychoeducational evaluation should provide a clear picture of the child's abilities and needs and should directly inform the development of appropriate goals, services, and accommodations. If an evaluation does not provide this information — for example, if the instruments used were not sensitive to the child's level of functioning, or if important areas were not assessed — parents have the right to request additional assessment or an independent educational evaluation.

What Is an Independent Educational Evaluation (IEE)?

An independent educational evaluation (IEE) is an evaluation conducted by a qualified professional who is not employed by the child's school district. Under IDEA, parents have the right to request an IEE at public expense if they disagree with the evaluation conducted by the school district. The district must either fund the IEE or file for a due process hearing to demonstrate that its own evaluation was appropriate.

Parents may wish to request an IEE when:

• They believe the school's evaluation did not use appropriate instruments or did not assess all relevant areas

• The evaluation results do not seem consistent with what they observe at home or what teachers report in the classroom

• The school's evaluation produced scores that are uninterpretable due to floor effects, ceiling effects, or other psychometric issues

• They want a second opinion from an evaluator who does not have a relationship with the school district

• An IEE should be conducted by a professional with expertise in the child's suspected area of disability, and the evaluation should be comprehensive enough to provide actionable information for educational planning.

What Do the Scores in My Child's Evaluation Mean?

Psychoeducational evaluations typically report results using several types of scores. The most common include:

• Standard scores: Scores that have been statistically adjusted so that they can be compared across tests and across children of the same age. Most cognitive and achievement tests use a standard score scale with a mean (average) of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. A standard score of 100 means a child performed at the average level for his or her age.

• Percentile ranks: The percentage of children who scored at or below the child's level. A percentile rank of 25 means the child scored as well as or better than 25% of children the same age. A percentile rank of 50 is average.

• Confidence intervals : A range of scores within which the child's true score is likely to fall. Because all tests have some degree of measurement error, a single score is best understood as an estimate. The confidence interval provides a more honest picture of the child's performance.

• Age and grade equivalents: Scores that describe the child's performance in terms of the age or grade level at which the average child earns a similar score. These scores are often misinterpreted and should be used with caution. An age equivalent of 7.5 does not mean a child is performing at a second-grade level in all respects. It means the child earned a score similar to the average score of children aged 7 years, 6 months.

• Subtest and composite scores: Evaluations typically report both broad composite scores (such as Full Scale IQ or Total Reading) and narrower subtest scores (such as Letter-Word Identification or Phonological Processing). Significant variation among subtest scores can be clinically meaningful, as it may point to specific areas of strength or weakness that a composite score alone would obscure.

If you are unsure what the scores in your child's evaluation mean, or if you suspect that the scores do not accurately represent your child's abilities, Dr Schneider can help. Evaluation review is one of the core services she provides.

Common Disability Categories

Dyslexia (Specific Learning Disability in Reading)

Dyslexia is a brain-based learning difference that results in unexpected difficulty with reading. Children with dyslexia may struggle with phonological processing, or the ability to identify, discriminate, and manipulate the sounds within spoken words,leading to difficulty with decoding (sounding out words), spelling, and reading fluency. Dyslexia is not a reflection of intelligence, effort, or the quality of instruction a child has received. With appropriate, evidence-based intervention, children with dyslexia can and do learn to read, though they may continue to need accommodations throughout their education.

Dysgraphia (Specific Learning Disability in Written Expression)

Dysgraphia is a learning difference that results in unexpected difficulty with handwriting and written expression. Children with dysgraphia may struggle with the physical act of writing (letter formation, spacing, legibility), with the encoding of language in print (spelling, grammar, syntax), or with the organization and expression of ideas in written form. Dysgraphia frequently co-occurs with dyslexia and may also be associated with difficulties in fine motor development.

Dyscalculia (Specific Learning Disability in Mathematics)

Dyscalculia is a learning difference that results in unexpected difficulty with mathematical concepts and computation. Children with dyscalculia may struggle to acquire number sense, to learn and retrieve arithmetic facts, to understand place value, or to reason through multi-step mathematical problems. Dyscalculia may manifest early as difficulty with counting, quantity comparisons, or one-to-one correspondence.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Autism is a neurodevelopmental difference that can affect social communication, social interaction, and behaviour. People with autism may have difficulty with reciprocal conversation, with understanding nonverbal cues such as facial expressions and body language, and with developing and maintaining relationships. Many autistic individuals have intense or focused interests, engage in repetitive behaviours, and are sensitive to sensory input, including light, sound, texture, and taste. Autism is a spectrum: People with autism vary widely in their abilities, challenges, and support needs.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental difference that affects an individual's ability to concentrate, maintain attention, and regulate behaviour and impulses. Children with ADHD may have difficulty sustaining focus in school, following multi-step directions, organizing tasks, or managing their behaviour and emotions. ADHD may present predominantly as inattention, predominantly as hyperactivity and impulsivity, or as a combination of both. ADHD frequently co-occurs with learning disabilities and can significantly affect academic achievement even in the absence of a specific learning disorder.

Intellectual Disability (ID)

Intellectual disability is characterised by significant limitations in both cognitive functioning and adaptive behaviour, which encompasses everyday social and practical skills. Children with intellectual disabilities may take longer to learn to speak, read, and acquire self-care skills, and they may need ongoing support in school and in daily life. People with intellectual disability vary widely in their strengths, weaknesses, and support needs, and individuals with intellectual disabilities continue to learn and develop throughout their lives. Educational programming for students with intellectual disabilities should be tailored to individual strengths and needs and should include instruction in both academic and functional skills.

Organizations & Resources

National Organizations

• Council of Parent Attorneys and Advocates (COPAA): A national organization serving families of children with disabilities and the professionals who represent them. COPAA provides resources for understanding special education law and locating attorneys and advocates. copaa.org

• Center for Parent Information and Resources (CPIR): The central hub of information and resources for families of children with disabilities, funded by the U.S. Department of Education. parentcenterhub.org

• Understood: A comprehensive resource for families of children with learning and attention differences, providing practical guidance on evaluation, IEPs, accommodations, and support strategies. understood.org

• International Dyslexia Association (IDA): professional organization dedicated to the study and treatment of dyslexia, providing fact sheets, resources, and referrals for families and educators. dyslexiaida.org

• Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA): A national organization providing support, resources, and advocacy for individuals with learning disabilities and their families. ldaamerica.org

• Autism Society of America: A national organization providing information, advocacy, and community resources for autistic individuals and their families. autismsociety.org

• CHADD (Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder): A national resource for information, support, and advocacy related to ADHD. chadd.org

• The Arc: A national organization advocating for the rights of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. thearc.org

• Wrightslaw: A widely used resource for parents and advocates seeking information about special education law, including IDEA, Section 504, and dispute resolution. wrightslaw.com

Connecticut Resources

• Connecticut Parent Advocacy Center (CPAC): Connecticut's federally funded Parent Training and Information Center, providing free training, information, and support to families of children with disabilities. cpacinc.org

• Connecticut State Department of Education, Bureau of Special Education: The state agency responsible for overseeing the provision of special education services in Connecticut's public schools. portal.ct.gov/sde/special-education

• Connecticut Office of the Child Advocate: An independent state agency that investigates complaints and advocates for the rights of children, including children with disabilities. ct.gov/oca